Although his successors explicitly rejected such policies, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states. . This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it. [42] Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains. Osprey Publishing. AR tetradrachm. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic, Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia. [268], Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest. [181], During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia. When Alexander died at the age of 32, he ruled a territory that spanned three continents and covered nearly 2 million square miles. [177][178][179] In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them". Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. "[102], Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. [13] During Philip's absence, the Thracian tribe of Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander the Great, only twenty years old when he became king of Macedonia in 336 B.C., was perhaps the greatest general of all time. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000km2 (2,000,000sqmi),[257] and was the largest state of its time. [275] The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. [35] At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage. [194] Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3km (1.86mi). (107) $379.44 FREE shipping. "[55] At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. [263] The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. [50] Alexander's relationship with his father "forged" the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle. [67], From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. [59], News then reached Alexander that the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Due to the demand of his homesick troops, he eventually turned back at the Beas River and later died in 323 BC in Babylon, the city of Mesopotamia that he had planned to establish as his empire's capital. Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India. [116] Alexander minted gold staters, silver tetradrachms and drachims, and various fractional bronze coins. [159][160] Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,[151] while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness. [32] Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. The visionary leadership of Alexander the Great - Medium [78] Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. [181] However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander. [152] Early sources indicated Aristotle was considered a potential assassination plotter for rumors had it that he had not forgiven Alexander for the fall of his grand-uncle, Callisthenes, hence he was the one who supplied the poison to Cassander, Antipater's son, who then handed it to his younger brother, Iolaus, the wine-pourer of Alexander. [286], Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods. [153] His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect. [128] The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab. [67] In the following year, 332BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege. ", In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians. [198] Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image; scholars today, however, find the claim dubious. [84] Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) while Alexander captured Babylon. [250], Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life. [234], Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria,[235][236][237] out of love;[238] and the Persian princesses Stateira and Parysatis, the former a daughter of Darius III and the latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. [116] The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the god Baaltars (Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrap Mazaeus before Alexander's conquest. [143], Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. The Macedonian Lion - History of Macedonia The Cutting of the Gordian Knot is an Ancient Greek legend associated with Alexander the Great in Gordium in Phrygia, regarding a complex knot that tied an oxcart. . [223], Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Alexander the Great was an ancient king of Macedon (present-day Macedonia). [297], Alexander wrote and received numerous letters, but no originals survive. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. 505.38 NOK (20% off) Silver Coin Pendant - Alexander the Great - 925 Sterling Silver 336-323 BC. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. [54] This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. [163] Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis, West Nile virus,[164][165] and Guillain-Barr syndrome. The Hellenistic period developed through the Roman Empire into modern Western culture; the Greek language became the lingua franca of the region and was the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire up until its collapse in the mid-15th century AD. This included commissioning sculptures by Lysippos, paintings by Apelles and gem engravings by Pyrgoteles. Where is Alexander the Great's tomb | Live Science [241][242], Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. [200] Despite those caveats, Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.[201]. [17] Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. [286] Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory). The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek. Aristotle - World History Encyclopedia [86], From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury. Alexander the Great - National Geographic Society Alexander - Wikipedia [266][267], Suda wrote that Alexander built a big temple to Sarapis. [214], Both of Alexander's parents encouraged his ambitions. [315], In the Greek Anthology, there are poems referring to Alexander.[316][317]. [110], When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. [127] Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time. [306] In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture led to the overwhelming dominance of Hellenistic civilization and influence as far east as the Indian subcontinent. The wine that was served could have had higher alcoholic content compared with vintages today. [139], Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them. [65][f] He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. In the winter of 327/326BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of the Kunar Valley, the Guraeans of the Guraeus Valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner Valleys. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation. [246] This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. Alexander was the first king to wear the royal diadem, a band of cloth tied around the hair that was to become the symbol of Hellenistic kingship. The territory was colonized, and a city, named Alexandropolis, was founded. [298], Many of the legends about Alexander derive from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. [216], Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history. [155] However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander. [270] Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and to hybridize Greek and Persian culture, homogenizing the populations of Asia and Europe. [305] Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth. Alexander the Great Facts, Information and Biography Greek Hero [303], In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. [310], The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God". Also, the New Testament was written in the Koine Greek language. [219][222] However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic Games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (tim) and glory (kudos). Details from the Alexander Sarcophagus show that he had a fair complexion with ruddy cheeks. Vergina Sun - Wikipedia [42] Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. [97] As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. A coin depicting Alexander the Great, conqueror of Egypt, with Horns of Amon on his head. [273] Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. [120] Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. There is a tradition that they would only start serious drinking, after everyone was done with their meals. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). [61] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. His portrait types were utilized and . While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world. [43] However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. By N. G. L. Hammond, F. W. Walbank, G. LE RIDER, Alexandre le Grand: Monnaie, finances et politique, Chapitre V, "Histoire", PUF, 2003, p153-214, REBUFFAT Franoise, La monnaie dans l'Antiquit, Picard, 1996 .p204. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians. [303] The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play. [122] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. [71] He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. The Dating of the Coinage of Alexander the Great - Brown University [195] Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army. When Alexander took the throne he ordered for all of his rivals to the throne to be killed to ensure no-one would . The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again. [305], According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. [295] This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". [102] As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants". [205][206][207], Many scholars and historians attribute heterochromia to him. In 336 he sent Parmenion, with Amyntas, Andromenes and Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion. [290], After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great. Literally translated, with a commentary, from the Greek of Arrian, the Nicomedian", "Philostratus the Athenian, Vita Apollonii, book 2, chapter 12", "NZ scientist's detective work may reveal how Alexander died", "Was the death of Alexander the Great due to poisoning? [116] However, the lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian god Sandas, worshipped at Tarsus. Marble portrait head of Alexander the Great: the head was cut to fit into a separately made body. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with pikes, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late Roman Republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD. Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. [272] The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect. [173][174], Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege. [131] This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests. [199][198] Nevertheless, Andrew Stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits, not least because of who they are commissioned by, are always partisan, and that artistic portrayals of Alexander "seek to legitimize him (or, by extension, his Successors), to interpret him to their audiences, to answer their critiques, and to persuade them of his greatness", and thus should be considered within a framework of "praise and blame", in the same way sources such as praise poetry are. Ancient Greek Macedonian Symbol. [167][169] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Tomb of Alexander the Great already found, archaeologist claims, but In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered. There was. [79] To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the Siwa Oasis. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. In 333 bc, Alexander the Great, on his march through Anatolia, reached Gordium, the capital of Phrygia. Julius Caesar, Cleopatra and Augustus, among others, are noted as having . Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes.