Prakash, Ruchika Shaurya, Michelle W. Voss, Kirk I. Erickson, and Arthur F. Kramer. eCollection 2022. Powe, Camille E., Michele K. Evans, Julia Wenger, Alan B. Zonderman, Anders H. Berg, Michael Nalls, Hector Tamez, Dongsheng Zhang, Ishir Bhan, Ananth Karumanchi, Neil R. Powe, and Ravi Thadhani. These activities were then coded by PSID researchers, and in their raw form may be aggregated to obtain a detailed snapshot of how and where children spent their time. /Height 42 /Length 7 0 R How Many Imputations Are Really Needed? 2014). Accessibility << We also find that sedentary and screen time use exhibit more substantial effects among children with less educated caregivers and girls, and speculate that time use gaps, opportunity cost structures (i.e., the range of alternative activities), and the differential sensitivity of behavior to weather conditions among subgroups may play a role in the stratified results. Psychological Restoration through Indoor and Outdoor Leisure For instance, we may find that children who have their time use and cognitive performance measured in December in the first wave and June in the second exhibit an increase in active behavior and a co-occurring growth in cognitive performance. Health Risks of an Inactive Lifestyle - MedlinePlus Stock, James H., Jonathan H. Wright, and Motohiro Yogo. Using extensive qualitative evidence, Lareau (2000, 2002) describes how the leisure time of children in middle-class families is highly structured and organized compared to the more informal, family-oriented working-class home environment. Several longitudinal studies have found early exposure to media and television in both infants and toddlers to predict worse cognitive outcomes later (Tomopoulos et al. (While there is no clear consensus value, specialists generally recommend first-stage F statistics of the excluded instrument above 10 [Stock, Wright, and Yogo 2002].) Erickson, Kirk I., Charles H. Hillman, and Arthur F. Kramer. BMC Psychol. /Subtype /Image Peterson, Bradley S., Virginia A. Rauh, Ravi Bansal, Xuejun Hao, Zachary Toth, Giancarlo Nati, Kirwan Walsh, Rachel L. Miller, Franchesca Arias, David Semanek, and Frederica Perera. Baseline differences in test performance (i.e., before entering kindergarten) between white and black children, to take one example, are often found to be as large as a full standard deviation (Bond and Lang 2013). Passive leisure activities become alternative leisure activities for older adults as a result of limited physical capacity. We thank Sandra Hofferth, Annette Lareau, Elliott B. Weininger, the members of the Connected Learning Research Network, and participants from the Child/Youth/Adolescents 2017 Health, Bodies, and Wellbeing ASA paper session for their critiques on earlier drafts of this manuscript. Zimmerman, Frederick J., and Dimitri A. Christakis. Unfortunately, because of the practical difficulties of inferring causal relationships using observational data, much of what we suspect to be involved in altering developmental trajectory is ultimately based on intuition and theory rather than robust empirical evidence. In 1997, the CDS component collected additional data on children (newborns to 12-year-olds) and their parents or guardians. In figure 3, we compare time use in the original CDS cohort we use in this analysis (19972007) to the newer 2014 module. Mielke, Gregore I., Wendy J. Yet these cognitive improvements may be attributable merely to the timing of the test further along in the school year in the second wave, and the substantial accumulation of knowledge children exhibit by virtue of the additive gains they experience as the school year progresses (Fitzpatrick, Grissmer, and Hastedt 2011). McKnight, P. E., K. M. McKnight, S. Sidani, and A. J. Figueredo. /Length 21 0 R Recent reviews have illustrated that low-SES children are significantly more likely to engage in sedentary behavior than their peers in the United States and other high-income countries (Leech, McNaughton, and Timperio 2014; Mielke et al. Other reviews of medium-term interventions find more general positive cognitive effectsthat is, across domains that include academic skillsbut effect sizes differ widely among the studies (Lees and Hopkins 2013). 2022 Mar 16;19(6):3543. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19063543. Jacob, Brian, Lars Lefgren, and Enrico Moretti. Front Public Health. Negative responses were consistent with the following effects of recreational disturbance at the community, population, or individual (behavioral or physiological) levels: decreased species richness or diversity; decreased survival, reproduction, occurrence, or abundance; behaviors typically assumed to reflect negative responses to anthropogenic 2005). Before Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife Active recreation Definition F ) sx3s\y; However, recreation stems from a basic human need for activities that are essential to the mental and physical well-being of the Recent work finds that rainfall seems to depress subjective life satisfaction in cross-sectional but not longitudinal models, with effect sizes in the former that are trivial compared to other determinants of mood like economic status (Barrington-Leigh and Behzadnejad 2017). For practical purposes, we believe our findings lend further support to the general notion that, ceteris paribus, physical activity seems to generally be a positive factor in child development, while sedentary and screen behavior seem to evince the opposite effect. Conceptually, we intuit that short- and medium-run changes in sunlight result in consequent reductions or increases in specific forms of leisure activity over the same time period, which then may have short- and medium-run cognitive effects. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Fairlie, Robert W., and Jonathan Robinson. Here, we use multiple imputation (MI) to handle missing cases, which involves an iterative process where observed data are used to predict missing values multiple times, resulting in a pre-specified number of imputed datasets that are then combined to obtain optimal parameter estimates (McKnight et al. 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Quasi-experimental studies on the cognitive effects of computer use have found that effects are largely null (Fairlie and Robinson 2013), or negative but modest in magnitude (Vigdor, Ladd, and Martinez 2014). This would merely alter the causal pathway, such that physiologically endogenous vitamin synthesis acts as the causal mechanism between behavior and performance instead of through some other physical or psychological channel. Active engagement of one self to sports and recreational activities certainly gives benefits. government site. Forests are a natural environment often used for such activities as jogging, hiking, dog walking, mountain biking, or horse riding. 2022 Aug 12;10:966989. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.966989. That is, because we deliberately exclude many kinds of behavior that could fall under the outside/active (e.g., walking to or from school) or sedentary (e.g., doing homework on the couch) categories, reductions in one do not necessarily lead to increases in the other. Standard OLS estimates (pooled across waves) do evince significant, negative relationships between sedentary behavior, television, total screen time, and math scores, but with noticeably smaller coefficients. /Filter /FlateDecode ! WebPassive recreation shall not include activities that may result result in degradation of the trail system, including but not limited to motor vehicle use, removal of vegetation beyond that necessary for trail construction, disturbance of soil beyond that necessary for trail construction, and hunting. Thus while we instrument with the average sunlight in KJ/m2 over the 24-hour period consistent with a time diary recorded on, say, Wednesday, June 5, we recognize by virtue of seasonality that we will in many cases be approximating sunlight on Tuesday the fourth, Thursday the sixth, and so on. While we make every attempt to account for these factors conceptually and empirically, because one cannot prove that the exclusion criteria are met, the possibility remains that there is some latent bias that drives our results. In fact, short-duration StS should be included as an important warm-up component before the uptake of recreational sports activities due to its potential positive effect on flexibility and musculotendinous injury Thomas Laidley, Dalton Conley, The Effects of Active and Passive Leisure on Cognition in Children: Evidence from Exogenous Variation in Weather, Social Forces, Volume 97, Issue 1, September 2018, Pages 129156, https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy020. Taken together, these findings suggest that the impact of the weather on mood is rather ambiguous, and that sunlight seems to affect outcomes chiefly through the act of being in- or outdoorsthat is, through activity and behavior. >> While recent work that attempts to econometrically isolate the causes of achievement supports the importance of intangibles like attitude and disposition, cognition still appears to be the primary determinant of economic success on both individual and national scales (Hanushek 2013; Lundborg, Nystedt, and Rooth 2014). The differences in the effects of physical and outdoor activity are more difficult to speculate on because all children exhibit relatively low levels of either behavior. The first two represent the most obvious potential sources of bias. 2015; Prakash et al. These data are not available from the authors. stream Results: << We highlight relevant systematic differences in time use among families in our data along with other factors that may contribute to some of the patterns found in our stratified results, and that may also relate to achievement gaps among children more generally. If higher-SES children are watching National Geographic and their peers are watching daytime talk shows, one might expect a qualitatively different effect. Recreational We conclude by descriptively examining time use among a comparably aged subset of the new CDS cohort in 2014 to adolescents in our main data, offering suggestive evidence of recent trend lines in behavior among US children, and providing relevant contemporary context for our findings. While some work does offer experimental evidence of the effects of select activities using randomized control trials (RCT)for example, Loprinzi and Kane (2015)it is difficult to infer how routinized behaviors affect outcomes of interest solely based on interventions among carefully targeted respondent populations. Extrapolating from effect sizes and average time use/math scores across waves, back-of-the-envelope calculations suggest that differences in behavior may account for nontrivial proportions of the black/white and caregiver college/no college gaps in assessment. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). 10 0 obj Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Barrington-Leigh, Christopher, and Fatemeh Behzadnejad. 2023 Mar 29;13(4):293. doi: 10.3390/bs13040293. Alexander, Karl L., Doris R. Entwisle, and Linda S. Olson. Still, we suspect the reason may lie not in the structure of the data but in how math and verbal ability change over the course of the school year. Because other imputed stratified estimates (see tables S4S5 in the online appendix) deliver similar or more conservative estimates compared to those using listwise deletion, it is possible that our main race-stratified results are downwardly biased due to nonresponse. Epub 2015 Jan 13. To capture the effect of sunlight on behavior, we use daily historical records of insolation (sunlight measured in kilojoules per square meter at the county level), collected as part of the North America Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS) and disseminated by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Wonder database (Centers for Disease Control 2017). /Subtype /Image Another consideration is the effect sizes of behavior on assessment we find among African Americans compared to whites, which could reflect differential vitamin D absorption because of the protective effects of melanin (Matsuoka et al. Construction of ancillary facilities, such as boardwalks and viewing platforms, can also cause In our verbal outcome specifications, time in school is highly significant in each. Because we view this in theory as more or less a dose-response relationship in the short and medium termlike a milder cousin to other exposures that induce changes in cognitive assessment, like neighborhood violence (e.g., Sharkey 2010)we exclude observations where the WJ-R test was administered before the time diary day, and cap the lag time at nine days so as to avoid an unrealistic coupling of exposure and outcome. << Geriatr Gerontol Int 2018; 18: 380-386. Therefore, our previous understanding of harmful StS effects on subsequent strength and power activities has to be updated. For instance, we do not capture the qualitative details of what kinds of physical, sedentary, and so on, behavior children are engaging in. >> Eyles, D. W., F. Feron, X. Cui, J. P. Kesby, L. H. Harms, P. Ko, J. J. McGrath, and T. H. J. Burne. In this sense, playing outside or watching television can be seen as extensions of the formal-informal dichotomy many sociologists sketch out in examining patterns in achievement and childhood trajectory. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted He is also interested in mapping the genetic architecture of phenotypic plasticity, and characterizing social and genetic sorting as distinct processes. /Name /im1 /Filter /FlateDecode activities Somewhat encouragingly, we did not see any dramatic overall changes from 2007 to 2014, particularly in screen time or sedentary behavior. Many older adults face limitations to participating in active leisure activities as a result of their physical constraints from aging. Recreational Trails on Wildlife Species: * p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001 (two-tailed tests). As the catchment and reservoir are the first and foremost barriers to protect drinking water quality, these ecological impacts may have a considerable influence on water quality. Int J Environ Res Public Health. If children are customarily indoors and relatively inactive whatever their background, why might we see such a difference in effect sizes? This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (, Racialization and Reproduction: Asian Immigrants and Californias Twentieth-Century Eugenic Sterilization Program, Review of Prisons and Health in the Age of Mass Incarceration, Review of: Making Gender Salient: From Gender Quota Laws to Policy, Review of Why Baby Boomers Turned from Religion: Shaping Belief and Belonging, 19452021, Review of Liberty Road: Black Middle-Class Suburbs and the Battle Between Civil Rights and Neoliberalism, Childhood Inequality, Time Use, and Cognitive Growth, Cognition: Practical Significance and Empirical Measurement, Supplementary material is available at Social Forces online, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic, Copyright 2023 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. Raw insolation values were calculated by the CDC on grid cells and aggregated up to the county level, and then quality-checked before being publicly released. and preferences for urban green spaces Fernndez-Mayoralas G, Rojo-Prez F, Martnez-Martn P, Prieto-Flores ME, Rodrguez-Blzquez C, Martn-Garca S, Rojo-Abun JM, Forjaz MJ; Spanish Research Group on Quality of Life and Ageing. One reason could be a systematic difference in opportunity cost structures, such that some children are substituting active behavior for less productive time use. TABLE 3 Table 3. As we will discuss in the Results section, time in school was a significant predictor in the verbal but not math specifications. endobj Matsuoka, Lois Y., Jacobo Wortsman, John G. Haddad, Paul Kolm, and Bruce W. Hollis. Yet other experimental research has found that even very short exposures (i.e., minutes, not hours) to high-intensity media can depress the executive functioning in children (Lillard and Peterson 2011), negatively mirroring related RCT study findings in physical activity. Quantitative work generally supports the notion that material and cultural resources are predictive of enrollment in more formalized activity (Weininger, Lareau, and Conley 2015), and that these cultivated time uses positively predict school achievement and test scores (Gaddis 2013; Jger 2011). 44 endstream Finally, due to the realities of the data we use, we cannot detail the mechanisms of the causal process we are trying to capture. stream Still, children today seem to be exhibiting similarly low levels of both physical and outdoor activities as their peers did in 2007. 9 0 obj We actually see a small reduction in total screen time, most likely because we code these behaviors as primary rather than secondary activities. WebRecreation, passive means low intensity recreation activities which have limited noise and light impacts and are minimally disruptive to the natural environment. 2013), criminal behavior (Jacob, Lefgren, and Moretti 2007), and civil conflict (Miguel, Satyanath, and Sergenti 2004), to name a few. Yet because we found that only a small minority of families move across waves (about 10 percent of the sample over the 10-year span), and even then mostly to geographically proximate locales, we feel this is an unrealistic candidate confounder. These observations are nevertheless preliminary and provisional, as researchers have tended to focus on the effects of physical behavior on cognition later in the life course (i.e., older adults) rather than in childhood (Prakash et al. PubMed Meanwhile, public health research in this vein is largely concerned with the division between active and sedentary forms of leisure time expenditure, rather than the formal-informal distinction. Disadvantages Of Recreation On the other end of the time use spectrum, research has often focused on the effects of screen time, as it constitutes an outsized proportion of American childrens leisure activity. 4.3 Passive Recreation - University of Michigan School for Changes in leisure activities of the elderly due to the COVID-19 in Korea. WebAim: Many older adults face limitations to participating in active leisure activities as a result of their physical constraints from aging. While the etiology of comparative disadvantage is difficult to disentangle, significant differences in cognition before kindergarten and the tendency for gaps to widen during the summer months highlight the crucial importance of the home environment (Alexander, Entwisle, and Olson 2007; Condron 2009). Supplementary material is available at Social Forces online. Older Adults' Advance Aging and Life Satisfaction Levels: Effects of Lifestyles and Health Capabilities. The current study suggests marketing and programming plans to overcome the constraints that influence older adults' life satisfaction. endstream Effect sizes are at least twice as large for girls compared to boys, with all activities exhibiting significant relationships with math assessment except for video games (table 3). Specifications that were not bounded by lag time restrictions produced substantively similar results, but with smaller coefficients and greater precision, consistent with the growth in sample size and reduced signal after including cases where testing substantially lags or precedes treatment. 83 Clifford, Angela, Linda Lang, Ruoling Chen, Kaarin J. Anstey, and Anthony Seaton. We found parental education to be so stable across waves as to function as time invariant, and thus dropped it from the specifications. That is, we cannot distinguish whether, for example, the connection between physical activity and cognitive performance is more straightforwardly physiological (e.g., through concrete channels like brain structure or enhanced executive functioning) or psychological (by being beneficial in themselves or substituting for other behaviors that may offer negative psychic and cognitive value). Because time diaries were assigned based on randomly selected dates, we assume no systematic relationship between when behavior was measured and any relevant demographic correlates. National Library of Medicine Passive leisure activities become alternative leisure In the only large-scale study that directly examines the effect of weather on cognition that we are aware of, Kent et al. Next, the negative effects of casual, serious, and project-based leisure are taken up. Meanwhile, some leisure is intolerably deviant, whereas other activities are new to society and are therefore in the course of being examined by the general public for their moral implications. Another quality that characterizes some leisure is its annoyingness. /Width 29 Sunlight also plays a key role in the formation of ozone (O3) from the environmental precursors of volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon dioxide (CO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and these chemical reactions are accelerated in higher temperatures. By exploiting the plausibly exogenous variation in weather on the day of measured activity, we can deliver estimates of how more active and passive forms of leisurewhich are particularly sensitive to weather and sunlightcontribute to shaping cognitive assessment over time. During your workout, your blood pressure To better address issues of endogeneity, we use a combined fixed-effects instrumental variable (FE-IV) approach, where we exploit the variation in weather to estimate the effect of time use on cognition across waves. We use weekday measures of time use, and necessarily exclude summer vacation as the CDS was administered only during the school year. Our imputed specifications in table 1 produce substantively similar estimates, which suggest that data missingness is not systematically biasing our core results. There are also other more clinically significant sun-related factors that work in the opposite direction, and would bias our estimates downward. Specific activities would then incorrectly be identified as aiding or impeding development when the causal directionality is actually reversed. Differences patterned on race are significantly narrower than they were in the mid-twentieth century by any reasonable estimate, yet there is evidence that this convergence has stagnated since the 1990s (Neal 2006), and may be attributable to cohort-specific gains that manifested in the 1970s and 1980s (Chay, Guryan, and Mazumder 2009). Effect Conceptually, we do not necessarily see this as a violation of the exclusion restriction because in order to get the benefits of sunlight on cognitive performance via the vitamin D pathway, children do still need to go outside and expose their skin to the sun, as even conventional window glass blocks most ultraviolet rays. Fernald, Anne, Virginia A. Marchman, and Adriana Wiesleder. There are three possible sources of variation in sunlight from wave to wave in our data: 1) the effect of children moving to a qualitatively different climate across waves (e.g., testing in May 1997 and 2002, but having moved from Vermont to Arizona in the interim); 2) the broader changes in weather due to taking the test in different seasonal conditions (e.g., testing in December 1997 and June 2002); and 3) the random weather perturbations that the jagged edges of the curves in figure 1 represent (e.g., engaging in activity and testing during a seasonably sunny few days in May 1997, and then again during a frost in May 2002). We may see differences among our subsamples because, for example, higher-SES kids are engaging in relatively productive or cognitively active sedentary behaviors like conversing with their siblings as opposed to sitting alone watching television. and transmitted securely. k#/m,]K9>Bk#.ku}uVj6^C |5>_:+5q/` Kq! p>KGFk}g $o^:G\f^;.^' {N?Fu6e:}o^:G\f^;.^' {N?]tr"{/+RI%Ve?/^u5`!,Ve?/^u5`!,Ve?/^u5`!,^W? Gaps in more passive leisure behaviors patterned on race, sex, and particularly SES as captured by mothers education persist, but seem to have attenuated somewhat. We also thank the editors of Social Forces and the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful guidance and critiques. WebLoneliness observed to be related to many factors such as depression, desolation, hopelessness, low level of self-esteem, low level of life satisfaction, adaptation difficulty, Challenges to this assumption include the possibility that season itself is predictive of cognitive performance.
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